Early Childhood Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Early Childhood Education - Essay Example Treatment of children in a family or society dictates how the family or society will be perceived in terms of success or failure. Isenberg & Jalongo, (1997) illustrate that childhood is the stage in life that is characterized by agility, curiosity and creativity. It is during this period of time that one decides on what to or not to be in future life. This therefore, implies that, a lot of attention is needed to get rid of undesirable characters which might associate with the child and grow with him/her to the future. Based on my profession and what I have gathered when learning this profession, given the opportunity to execute my duties, I will ensure that the children under my care obtain the best practices. This will be possible through incorporation of best learning practices such as practical learning methods into this system of education as echoed by Mallory & New (1994). According to Grotewell and Burton (2008), it is worth noting that not all children are born physically and mentally healthy. Some are born with physical disabilities while others suffer from mental disorders. In case this happens, it is possible that a child might be healthy both physically and mentally but born out of families which are not capable of providing for their basic needs. This can range from shelter, food, and clothing to comfort that they might need at some point in their childhood. The main objective of the early childhood initiative was to help young children and their families to survive which ever times they might be living. This is achieved through provision of support and intervention for the children and infants with priorities given to those who are disabled. Anning, Cullen & Fleer, (2004) explain that undertaking a course on early childhood education will open up opportunities in areas such as educational administrators, coordinators and librarians. Those trained

Scholarship Statement - Rail Club Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Scholarship Statement - Rail Club - Essay Example Visit me during my office hours when you can because I would like for you to learn about the operations program we have at Cal Poly.† That encounter caused a 180 degree turn in my academic orientation, resulting in a change of my major to operations management and finance. The study of operations management enabled me to find my true passion for a professional career. Upon completing the Long Beach masters program in May 2012, I will be qualified to work for in the transportation industry. My penultimate goal is to have my own logistics conglomerate so that I can provide services to small and medium size companies that have worthy products ready to make a presence at the international level. My choice to major in operations management emerged logically out of a number of drives and passions. Operations management suffuses my whole being with passion because it is an industry where one as a manager or executive is confronted with daily challenges to meet operational goals, which requires being open to constant innovation of the system. I personally like to challenge myself and solve problems because it allows for growth as a professional within the job. A fast-paced, innovative, constantly changing workplace appeals to me and resonates with me psychically. Operations management is also a place where inefficiencies can be found.

State Board for Educator Certification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

State Board for Educator Certification - Essay Example This is an ethical code safeguards the innocence of the pupils. Teachers are expected to protect their students for sexual exploitation. However, they are supposed to educate then on sex education being very cautious not to create an impression that may affect the student’s psychology. In the Texas ethical codes of conduct, teachers are therefore expected to refrain from soliciting and or engaging in sexual conduct or romantic relationship with a student.I discussed these issues with the dean of student’s affairs in my campus; he confessed that during his long service in this position to have experienced such cases. However a majority of cases were solved internally. However, a number of cases had been forwarded to the board because the complainants felt that they had not been accorded enough justice through the campus dispute committee. Unethical conduct toward professional colleagues:In most campuses across our district interactions between staff members are generally amiable, and where they are not, they are professional at the very least. The existing code of ethical standards guides against making false accusations or allusions about coworkers, observing school policies in regard to appointment, appraising, and dismissing staffs, not infringing with coworkers’ political or citizenship rights, discrimination against colleagues , among others. However, in special instances, teachers ask favors of each other that may be unethical. In fact, peer pressure is the most common form.... In the Texas ethical codes of conduct, teachers are therefore expected to refrain from soliciting and or engaging in sexual conduct or romantic relationship with a student. I discussed these issues with the dean of student’s affairs in my campus; he confessed that during his long service in this position to have experienced such cases. However a majority of cases were solved internally. However, a number of cases had been forwarded to the board because the complainants felt that they had not been accorded enough justice through the campus dispute committee. Unethical conduct toward professional colleagues: In most campuses across our district interactions between staff members are generally amiable, and where they are not, they are professional at the very least. The existing code of ethical standards guides against making false accusations or allusions about coworkers, observing school policies in regard to appointment, appraising, and dismissing staffs, not infringing with c oworkers’ political or citizenship rights, discrimination against colleagues , among others. However, in special instances, teachers ask favors of each other that may be unethical. In fact, peer pressure is the most common form of coercion, witnessed among teacher colleagues and is occasionally effective. This, in most cases puts the teacher requested in situation of breaching the set ethical standards. Week 2 Assignment, Part 3: School District Policies and Procedures The web address where your district’s human resources and personnel policies are located http://www.tea.state.tx.us/portals.aspx?id=2147484909 Briefly reflect on what you learned in reviewing these policies and procedures. I learnt that every state has its own unique policies; however, these policies are

Foreign exchange market Essay Example for Free

Foreign exchange market Essay Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the supply of money, often targeting a rate of interest for the purpose of promoting economic growth and stability. The official goals usually include relatively stable prices and low unemployment. Monetary theory provides insight into how to craft optimal monetary policy. It is referred to as either being expansionary or contractionary, where an expansionary policy increases the total supply of money in the economy more rapidly than usual, and contractionary policy expands the money supply more slowly than usual or even shrinks it. Expansionary policy is traditionally used to try to combat unemployment in a recession by loweringinterest rates in the hope that easy credit will entice businesses into expanding. Contractionary policy is intended to slow inflation in order to avoid the resulting distortions and deterioration of asset values. Monetary policy, to a great extent, is the management of expectations. Monetary policy rests on the relationship between the rates of interest in an economy, that is, the price at which money can be borrowed, and the total supply of money. Monetary policy uses a variety of tools to control one or both of these, to influence outcomes like economic growth, inflation, exchange rates with other currencies and unemployment. Where currency is under a monopoly of issuance, or where there is a regulated system of issuing currency through banks which are tied to a central bank, the monetary authority has the ability to alter the money supply and thus influence the interest rate (to achieve policy goals). The beginning of monetary policy as such comes from the late 19th century, where it was used to maintain the gold standard. General Monetary policy is the process by which the government, central bank, or monetary authority of a country controls (i) the supply of money, (ii) availability of money, and (iii) cost of money or rate of interest to attain a set of objectives oriented towards the growth and stability of the economy. Monetary theory provides insight into how to craft optimal monetary policy. Monetary policy rests on the relationship between the rates of interest in an economy, that is the price at which money can be borrowed, and the total supply of money. Monetary policy uses a variety of tools to control one or both of these, to influence outcomes like economic growth, inflation, exchange rates with other currencies and unemployment. Where currency is under a monopoly of issuance, or where there is a regulated system of issuing currency through banks which are tied to a central bank, the monetary authority has the ability to alter the money supply and thus influence the interest rate (to achieve policy goals). It is important for policymakers to make credible announcements. If private agents (consumers and firms) believe that policymakers are committed to lowering inflation, they will anticipate future prices to be lower than otherwise (how those expectations are formed is an entirely different matter; compare for instance rational expectations with adaptive expectations). If an employee expects prices to be high in the future, he or she will draw up a wage contract with a high wage to match these prices. Hence, the expectation of lower wages is reflected in wage-setting behavior between employees and employers (lower wages since prices are expected to be lower) and since wages are in fact lower there is no demand pull inflation because employees are receiving a smaller wage and there is no cost push inflation because employers are paying out less in wages. 2. What is a Central Bank? A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries. In contrast to a commercial bank, a central bank possesses a monopoly on increasing the amount of money in the nation, and usually also prints the national currency, which usually serves as the nations legal tender. Examples include the European Central Bank (ECB) and the Federal Reserve of the United States. The primary function of a central bank is to manage the nations money supply (monetary policy), through active duties such as managing interest rates, setting the reserve requirement, and acting as a lender of last resort to the banking sector during times of bank insolvency or financial crisis. Central banks usually also have supervisory powers, intended to prevent bank runs and to reduce the risk that commercial banks and other financial institutions engage in reckless or fraudulent behavior. Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. THE BANGKO SENTRAL NG PILIPINAS The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (English: Central Bank of the Philippines; Spanish: Banco Central de Filipinas; commonly abbreviated as BSP in both Filipino and English), is the central bank of the Philippines. It was established on July 3, 1993, pursuant to the provision of Republic Act 7653 or the New Central Bank Act of 1993. History In 1900, the First Philippine Commission passed Act No. 52, which placed all banks under the Bureau of the Treasury and authorizing the Insular Treasurer to supervise and examine banks and all banking activity. In 1929, the Department of Finance, through the Bureau of Banking, took over bank supervision. By 1933, a group of Filipinos had conceptualized a central bank for the Philippine Islands. It came up with the rudiments of a bill for the establishment of a central bank after a careful study of the economic provisions of the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act, which would grant Philippine independence after 12 years, but reserving military and naval bases for the United States and imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. However, the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act would be rejected by the Senate of the Philippines at the urging of Manuel L. Quezon. This Senate then advocated a new bill that won President Franklin D. Roosevelts support; this would be the Tydings–McDuffie Act, which would grant Philippine independence on July 4, 1946. During the Commonwealth Period, discussions continued regarding the idea of a Philippine central bank that would promote price stability and economic growth. The countrys monetary system then was administered by the Department of Finance and the National Treasury, and the Philippine peso was on the exchange standard using the United States dollar, which was backed by 100 percent gold reserve, as the standard currency. As required by the Tydings–McDuffie Act, the National Assembly of the Philippines in 1939 passed a law establishing a central bank. As it was a monetary law, it required the approval of the President of the United States; Franklin D. Roosevelt did not give his. A second law was passed in 1944 under the Japanese-controlledSecond Republic, but the arrival of American liberation forces in 1945 aborted its implementation. Shortly after President Manuel Roxas assumed office in 1946, he instructed then-Finance Secretary Miguel Cuaderno, Sr. to draw up a charter for a central bank. The establishment of a monetary authority became imperative a year later as a result of the findings of the Joint Philippine-American Finance Commission chaired by Cuaderno. The Commission, which studied Philippine financial, monetary, and fiscal problems in 1947, recommended a shift from the dollar exchange standard to a managed currency system. A central bank was necessary to implement the proposed shift to the new system. Roxas then created the Central Bank Council to prepare the charter of a proposed monetary authority. It was submitted to Congress in February 1948. By June of the same year, the newly proclaimed President Elpidio Quirino, who succeeded President Roxas, affixed his signature on Republic Act (RA) No. 265, the Central Bank Act of 1948.On January 3, 1949, the Central Bank of the Philippines was formally inaugurated with Miguel Cuaderno, Sr. as the first governor. The main duties and responsibilities of the Central Bank were to promote economic development and maintain internal and external monetary stability. 3. What are the Types of Monetary Policy? In practice, to implement any type of monetary policy the main tool used is modifying the amount of base money in circulation. The monetary authority does this by buying or selling financial assets (usually government obligations). These open market operations change either the amount of money or its liquidity (if less liquid forms of money are bought or sold). The multiplier effect of fractional reserve banking amplifies the effects of these actions. Constant market transactions by the monetary authority modify the supply of currency and this impacts other market variables such as short term interest rates and the exchange rate. The distinction between the various types of monetary policy lies primarily with the set of instruments and target variables that are used by the monetary authority to achieve their goals. Monetary Policy: Target Market Variable: Long Term Objective: Inflation Targeting Interest rate on overnight debt A given rate of change in the CPI Price Level Targeting Interest rate on overnight debt A specific CPI number Monetary Aggregates The growth in money supply A given rate of change in the CPI Fixed Exchange Rate The spot price of the currency The spot price of the currency Gold Standard The spot price of gold Low inflation as measured by the gold price Mixed Policy Usually interest rates Usually unemployment + CPI change The different types of policy are also called monetary regimes, in parallel to exchange rate regimes. A fixed exchange rate is also an exchange rate regime; The Gold standard results in a relatively fixed regime towards the currency of other countries on the gold standard and a floating regime towards those that are not. Targeting inflation, the price level or other monetary aggregates implies floating exchange rate unless the management of the relevant foreign currencies is tracking exactly the same variables. In economics, an expansionary fiscal policy includes higher spending and tax cuts, that encourage economic growth. In turn, an expansionary monetary policy is one that seeks to increase the size of the money supply. Conversely, contractionary monetary policy seeks to reduce the size of the money supply. In most nations, monetary policy is controlled by either a central bank or a finance ministry. In most nations, monetary policy is controlled by either a central bank or a finance ministry. Neoclassical and Keynesian economics significantly differ on the effects and effectiveness of monetary policy on influencing the real economy; there is no clear consensus on how monetary policy affects real economic variables (aggregate output or income, employment). Both economic schools accept that monetary policy affects monetary variables (price levels, interest rates). Inflation targeting Under this policy approach the target is to keep inflation, under a particular definition such as Consumer Price Index, within a desired range. The inflation target is achieved through periodic adjustments to the Central Bank interest rate target. The interest rate used is generally the interbank rate at which banks lend to each other overnight for cash flow purposes. Depending on the country this particular interest rate might be called the cash rate or something similar. The interest rate target is maintained for a specific duration using open market operations. Typically the duration that the interest rate target is kept constant will vary between months and years. This interest rate target is usually reviewed on a monthly or quarterly basis by a policy committee. Changes to the interest rate target are made in response to various market indicators in an attempt to forecast economic trends and in so doing keep the market on track towards achieving the defined inflation target. For example, one simple method of inflation targeting called the Taylor rule adjusts the interest rate in response to changes in the inflation rate and the output gap. The rule was proposed  by John B. Taylor of Stanford University. The inflation targeting approach to monetary policy approach was pioneered in New Zealand. It has been used inAustralia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, New Zealand, Norway, Iceland, India,Philippines, Poland, Sweden, South Africa, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. Price level targeting Price level targeting is a monetary policy that is similar to inflation targeting except that CPI growth in one year over or under the long term price level target is offset in subsequent years such that a targeted price-level is reached over time, e.g. five years, giving more certainty about future price increases to consumers. Under inflation targeting what happened in the immediate past years is not taken into account or adjusted for in the current and future years. Uncertainty in price levels can create uncertainty around price and wage setting activity for firms and workers, and undermines any information that can be gained from relative prices, as it is more difficult for firms to determine if a change in the price of a good or service is because of inflation or other factors, such as an increase in the efficiency of factors of production, if inflation is high and volatile. An increase in inflation also leads to a decrease in the demand for money, as it reduces the incentive to hold money and increases transaction and shoe leather costs. Monetary aggregates In the 1980s, several countries used an approach based on a constant growth in the money supply. This approach was refined to include different classes of money and credit (M0, M1 etc.). In the USA this approach to monetary policy was discontinued with the selection of Alan Greenspan as Fed Chairman. This approach is also sometimes called monetarism. While most monetary policy focuses on a price signal of one form or another, this approach is focused on monetary quantities. As these quantities could have a role on the economy and business cycles depending on the households risk aversion level, money is sometimes explicitly added in the central banks reaction function. Fixed exchange rate This policy is based on maintaining a fixed exchange rate with a foreign currency. There are varying degrees of fixed exchange rates, which can be ranked in relation to how rigid the fixed exchange rate is with the anchor nation. Under a system of fiat fixed rates, the local government or monetary authority declares a fixed exchange rate but does not actively buy or sell currency to maintain the rate. Instead, the rate is enforced by non-convertibility measures (e.g. capital controls, import/export licenses, etc.). In this case there is a black market exchange rate where the currency trades at its market/unofficial rate. Under a system of fixed-convertibility, currency is bought and sold by the central bank or monetary authority on a daily basis to achieve the target exchange rate. This target rate may be a fixed level or a fixed band within which the exchange rate may fluctuate until the monetary authority intervenes to buy or sell as necessary to maintain the exchange rate within the band. (In this case, the fixed exchange rate with a fixed level can be seen as a special case of the fixed exchange rate with bands where the bands are set to zero.) Under a system of fixed exchange rates maintained by a currency board every unit of local currency must be backed by a unit of foreign currency (correcting for the exchange rate). This ensures that the local monetary base does not inflate without being backed by hard currency and eliminates any worries about a run on the local currency by those wishing to convert the local currency to the hard (anchor) currency. Under dollarization, foreign currency (usually the US dollar, hence the term dollarization) is used freely as the medium of exchange either exclusively or in parallel with local currency. This outcome can come about because the local population has lost all faith in the local currency, or it may also be a policy of the government (usually to rein in inflation and import credible monetary policy). These policies often abdicate monetary policy to the foreign monetary authority or government as monetary policy in the pegging nation must align with monetary policy in the anchor nation to maintain the exchange rate. The degree to which local monetary policy becomes dependent on the anchor nation depends on factors such as capital mobility, openness, credit channels and other economic factors. Gold standard The gold standard is a system under which the price of the national currency is measured in units of gold bars and is kept constant by the governments promise to buy or sell gold at a fixed price in terms of the base currency. The gold standard might be regarded as a special case of fixed exchange rate policy, or as a special type of commodity price level targeting. Today this type of monetary policy is no longer used by any country, although the gold standard was widely used across the world between the mid-19th century through 1971. Its major advantages were simplicity and transparency. The gold standard was abandoned during the Great Depression, as countries sought to reinvigorate their economies by increasing their money supply. The Bretton Woods system, which was a modified gold standard, replaced it in the aftermath of World War II. However, this system too broke down during the Nixon shock of 1971. The gold standard induces deflation, as the economy usually grows faster than the supply of gold. When an economy grows faster than its money supply, the same amount of money is used to execute a larger number of transactions. The only way to make this possible is to lower the nominal cost of each transaction, which means that prices of goods and services fall, and each unit of money increases in value. Absent precautionary measures, deflation would tend to increase the ratio of the real value of nominal debts to physical assets over time. For example, during deflation, nominal debt and the monthly nominal cost of a fixed-rate home mortgage stays the same, even while the dollar value of the house falls, and the value of the dollars required to pay the mortgage goes up. Economists generally consider such deflation to be a major disadvantage of the gold standard. Unsustainable (i.e. excessive) deflation can cause problems during recessions and crisis lengthening the amount of time an economy spends in recession. William Jennings Bryan rose to national prominence when he built his historic (though unsuccessful) 1896 presidential campaign around the argument that deflation caused by the gold standard made it harder for everyday citizens to start new businesses, expand their farms, or build new homes. 4. What are the Monetary Policy tools? Monetary policy uses three main tactical approaches to maintain monetary stability: The first tactic manages the money supply. This mainly involves buying government bonds (expanding the money supply) or selling them (contracting the money supply). In the Federal Reserve System, these are known as open market operations, because the central bank buys and sells government bonds in public markets. Most of the government bonds bought and sold through open market operations are short-term government bondsbought and sold from Federal Reserve System member banks and from large financial institutions. When the central bank disburses or collects payment for these bonds, it alters the amount of money in the economy while simultaneously affecting the price (and thereby the yield) of short-term government bonds. The change in the amount of money in the economy in turn affects interbank interest rates. The second tactic manages money demand. Demand for money, like demand for most things, is sensitive to price. For money, the price is the interest rates charged to borrowers. Setting banking-system lending or interest rates (such as the US overnight bank lending rate, the federal funds discount Rate, and the London Interbank Offer Rate, or Libor) in order to manage money demand is a major tool used by central banks. Ordinarily, a central bank conducts monetary policy by raising or lowering its interest rate target for the interbank interest rate. If the nominal interest rate is at or very near zero, the central bank cannot lower it further. Such a situation, called a liquidity trap, can occur, for example, during deflation or when inflation is very low. The third tactic involves managing risk within the banking system. Banking systems use fractional reserve banking to encourage the use of money for investment and expanding economic activity. Banks must keep banking reserves on hand to handle actual cash needs, but they can lend an amount equal to several times their actual reserves. The money lent out by banks increases the money supply, and too much money (whether lent or printed) will lead to inflation. Central banks manage systemic risks by maintaining a balance between expansionary economic activity through bank lending and control of inflation through reserve requirements. 5. What is Fiscal Policy? Fiscal policy is a type of economical intervention where the government injects its policies into an economy in order to either expand the economy’s growth or to contract it. By changing the levels of spending and taxation, a government can directly or indirectly affect the aggregate demand, which is the total amount of goods and services in an economy. One thing to remember concerning fiscal policy is that a recession is generally defined as a time period of at least two quarters of consecutive reduction in growth. It may take time to even recognize whether or not there is a recession. With fiscal policy, there will be certain levels of lag time in which conditions will deteriorate before being recognized. At the same time, fiscal policy takes time to implement due to legislative and administrative processes, and those same policies will take time to show results after implementation. Consumers can also react to these policies positively or negatively. Most consumers would have a positive reaction per say to a policy that lowers taxes, while some will have an issue with a government spending more which will increase the burden of debt on nations citizens. Nevertheless, fiscal policy is a type of intervention that can help to control the direction of an economy. Deciding if and when it should be used will certainly continue to be debated. In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue collection (taxation) and expenditure (spending) to influence the economy. The two main instruments of fiscal policy are changes in the level and composition of taxation and government spending in various sectors. These changes can affect the following macroeconomic variables in an economy: Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity; The distribution of income; The pattern of resource allocation within the sector and relative to the private sector. Fiscal policy refers to the use of the government budget to influence economic activity. 6. What are the Types of Fiscal Policy? Expansionary Fiscal Policy When an economy is in a recession, expansionary fiscal policy is in order. Typically this type of fiscal policy results in increased government spending and/or lower taxes. A recession results in a recessionary gap – meaning that aggregate demand (ie, GDP) is at a level lower than it would be in a full employment situation. In order to close this gap, a government will typically increase their spending which will directly increase the aggregate demand curve (since government spending creates demand for goods and services). At the same time, the government may choose to cut taxes, which will indirectly affect the aggregate demand curve by allowing for consumers to have more money at their disposal to consume and invest. The actions of this expansionary fiscal policy would result in a shift of the aggregate demand curve to the right, which would result closing the recessionary gap and helping an economy grow. Contractionary Fiscal Policy Contractionary fiscal policy is essentially the opposite of expansionary fiscal policy. When an economy is in a state where growth is at a rate that is getting out of control (causing inflation and asset bubbles), contractionary fiscal policy can be used to rein it in to a more sustainable level. If an economy is growing too fast or for example, if unemployment is too low, an inflationary gap will form. In order to eliminate this inflationary gap a government may reduce government spending and increase taxes. A decrease in spending by the government will directly decrease aggregate demand curve by reducing government demand for goods and services. Increases in tax levels will also slow growth, as consumers will have less money to consume and invest, thereby indirectly reducing the aggregate demand curve. Considerations Economic fluctuations independent of policy actions by government often affect the level of tax revenues, forcing elected officials to alter fiscal policy. For example, economic recessions reduce output and employment, resulting in reduced revenue for government coffers. This often forces policy makers to consider contractionary measures, such as increasing revenues by raising taxes or cutting government spending. 7. What are the Components/Instruments of Fiscal Policy? Taxation Taxation is one of the two primary instruments of fiscal policy. When the government increases or decreases taxes, it increases or decreases the amount of money consumers have to spend which can have a significant impact on the direction of the overall economy. A decrease in taxation tends to put more money into the hands of consumers, which can lead to increased spending. Increased spending tends to lead to higher revenues for businesses, which can allow them to expand and hire more workers. Cutting taxes is a common fiscal policy measure to encourage economic growth. Government Spending Government spending is the other main instrument of fiscal policy. The expenditures of the government can promote economic activity and create jobs. For example, if the government funds a project to build a high-speed train across the country, the funds that go into the project could go toward hiring workers which could reduce unemployment and inject money into the economy. Higher levels of government spending tend to promote employment and economic growth. Considerations The government uses fiscal policy to promote economic growth, low unemployment and to stabilize the economy. During period of low economic growth, the government tends to cut taxes and may increase spending in an attempt to spark growth. During periods of high economic growth, the government may increase taxes and cut spending to ensure that the economy doesnt grow too quickly which can result in undesirable effects like high inflation. 8. What are the Stances of Fiscal Policy? The three main stances of fiscal policy are: Neutral fiscal policy is usually undertaken when an economy is in equilibrium. Government spending is fully funded by tax revenue and overall the budget outcome has a neutral effect on the level of economic activity. Expansionary fiscal policy involves government spending exceeding tax revenue, and is usually undertaken during recessions. Contractionary fiscal policy occurs when government spending is lower than tax revenue, and is usually undertaken to pay down government debt. However, these definitions can be misleading because, even with no changes in spending or tax laws at all, cyclic fluctuations of the economy cause cyclic fluctuations of tax revenues and of some types of government spending, altering the deficit situation; these are not considered to be policy changes. Therefore, for purposes of the above definitions, government spending and tax revenue are normally replaced by cyclically adjusted government spending and cyclically adjusted tax revenue. Thus, for example, a government budget that is balanced over the course of the business cycle is considered to represent a neutral fiscal policy stance. 1. Methods of funding Governments spend money on a wide variety of things, from the military and police to services like education and healthcare, as well as transfer payments such as welfare benefits. This expenditure can be funded in a number of different ways: Taxation Seignior age, the benefit from printing money Borrowing money from the population or from abroad Consumption of fiscal reserves Sale of fixed assets (e.g., land) 2. Borrowing A fiscal deficit is often funded by issuing bonds, like treasury bills or consols and gilt-edged securities. These pay interest, either for a fixed period or indefinitely. If the interest and capital requirements are too large, a nation may default on its debts, usually to foreign creditors. Public debt or borrowing refers to the government borrowing from the public. 3. Consuming prior surpluses A fiscal surplus is often saved for future use, and may be invested in either local currency or any financial instrument that may be traded later once resources are needed; notice, additional debt is not needed. For this to happen, the marginal propensity to save needs to be strictly positive. Economic effects of fiscal policy Governments use fiscal policy to influence the level of aggregate demand in the economy, in an effort to achieve economic objectives of price stability, full employment, and economic growth. Keynesian economics suggests that increasing government spending and decreasing tax rates are the best ways to stimulate aggregate demand, and decreasing spending increasing taxes after the economic boom begins. Keynesians argue this method be used in times of recession or low economic activity as an essential tool for building the framework for strong economic growth and working towards full employment. In theory, the resulting deficits would be paid for by an expanded economy during the boom that would follow; this was the reasoning behind the New Deal. Governments can use a budget surplus to do two things: to slow the pace of strong economic growth, and to stabilize prices when inflation is too high. Keynesian theory posits that removing spending from the economy will reduce levels of aggregate demand and contract the economy, thus stabilizing prices. But economists still debate the effectiveness of fiscal stimulus. The argument mostly centers on crowding out: whether government borrowing leads to higher interest rates that may offset the simulative impact of spending. When the government runs a budget deficit, funds will need to come from public borrowing (the issue of government bonds), overseas borrowing, or monetizing the debt. When governments fund a deficit with the issuing of government bonds, interest rates can increase across the market, because government borrowing creates higher demand for credit in the financial markets. This causes a lower aggregate demand for goods and services, contrary to the objective of a fiscal stimulus. Neoclassical economists generally emphasize crowding out while Keynesians argue that fiscal policy can still be effective especially in a liquidity trap where, they argue, crowding out is minimal. 9. What are the Functions of Fiscal Policy? Allocation The first major function of fiscal policy is to determine exactly how funds will be allocated. This is closely related to the issues of taxation and spending, because the allocation of funds depends upon the collection of taxes and the government using that revenue for specific purposes. The national budget determines how funds are allocated. This means that a specific amount of funds is set aside for purposes specifically laid out by the government. This has a direct economic impact on the country. Distribution Whereas allocation determines how much will be set aside and for what purpose, the distribution function of fiscal policy is to determine more specifically how those funds will be distributed throughout each segment of the economy. For instance, the government might allocate $1 billion toward social welfare programs, but $100 million could be distributed to food stamp programs, while another $250 million is distributed among low-cost housing authority agencies. Distribution provides the specific explanation of what allocation was intended for in the first place. Stabilization Stabilization is another important function of fiscal policy in that the purpose of budgeting is to provide stable economic growth. Without some restraints on spending, the economic growth of the nation could become unstable, resulting in periods of unrestrained growth and contraction. While many might frown upon governmental restraint of growth, the stock market crash of 1929 made it clear that unfettered growth could have serious consequences. The cyclical nature of the market means that unrestrained growth cannot continue for an indefinite period. When growth periods end, they are followed by contraction in the form of recessions or prolonged recessions known as depressions. Fiscal policy is designed to anticipate and mitigate the effects of such economic lulls. Development The fourth major function of fiscal policy is that of development. Development seems to indicate economic growth, and that is, in fact, its overall purpose. However, fiscal policy is far more complicated than determining how much the government will tax citizens one year and then determining how that money will be spent. True economic growth occurs when various projects are financed and carried out using borrowed funds. This stems from the the belief that the private sector cannot grow the economy by itself. Instead, some government input and influence are needed. Borrowing funds for this economic growth is one way in which the government brings about development. This economic model developed by John Maynard Keynes has been adopted in various forms since the World War II era. 10. What is the Fiscal Policy in the Philippines? Fiscal policy refers to the measures employed by governments to stabilize the economy, specifically by manipulating the levels and allocations of taxes and government expenditures. Fiscal measures are frequently used in tandem with monetary policy to achieve certain goals. In the Philippines, this is characterized by continuous and increasing levels of debt and budget deficits, though there have been improvements in the last few years. The Philippine government’s main sources of revenue are taxes, with some non-tax revenue also being collected. To finance fiscal deficit and debt, the Philippines rely on both domestic and external sources. Fiscal policy during the Marcos administration was primarily focused on indirect tax collection and on government spending on economic services and infrastructure development. The administration inherited a large fiscal deficit from the previous administration, but managed to reduce fiscal imbalance and improve tax collection through the introduction of the 1986 Tax Reform Program and the value added tax. The Ramos experienced budget surpluses due to substantial gains from the massive sale of government assets and strong foreign investment in its early years. However, the implementation of the 1997 Comprehensive Tax Reform Program and the onset of the Asian financial crisis resulted to a deteriorating fiscal position in the succeeding years and administrations. The Estrada administration faced a large fiscal deficit due to the decrease in tax effort and the repayment of the Ramos administration’s debt to contractors and suppliers. During the Arroyo administration, the Expanded Value Added Tax Law was enacted, national debt-to-GDP ratio peaked, and under spending on public infrastructure and other capital expenditures was observed. History of Philippine Fiscal Policy Marcos Administration (1981-1985) The tax system under the Marcos administration was generally regressive as it was heavily dependent on indirect. Indirect taxes and international trade taxes accounted for about 35% of total tax revenue, while direct taxes only accounted for 25%. Government expenditure for economic services peaked during this period, focusing mainly on infrastructure development, with about 33% of the budget spent on capital outlays. In response to the higher global interest rates and to the depreciation of the peso, the government became increasingly reliant on domestic financing to finance fiscal deficit. The government also started liberalizing tariff policy during this period by enacting the initial Tariff Reform Program, which narrowed the tariff structure from a range of 100%-0% to 50%-10%, and the Import Liberalization Program, which aimed at reducing or eliminating tariffs and realigning indirect taxes. Aquino Administration (1986-1992) Faced with problems inherited from the previous administration, the most important of which being the large fiscal deficit heightened by the low tax effort due to a weak tax system, Aquino enacted the 1986 Tax Reform Program (TRP). The aim of the TRP was to â€Å"simplify the tax system, make revenues more responsive to economic activity, promote horizontal equity and promote growth by correcting existing taxes that impaired business incentives†. One of the major reforms enacted under the program was the introduction of the Value Added Tax (VAT), which was set at 10%. The 1986 tax reform program resulted in reduced fiscal imbalance and higher tax effort in the succeeding years, peaking in 1997, before the enactment of the 1997 Comprehensive Tax Reform Program (CTRP). The share of non-tax revenues during this period soared due to the sale of sequestered assets of President Marcos and his cronies (totalling to about â‚ ±20 billion), the initial efforts to deregulate the oil i ndustry and thrust towards the privatization of state enterprises. Public debt servicing and interest payments as a percent of the budget peaked during this period as government focused on making up for the debt incurred by the Marcos administration. Another important reform enacted during the Aquino administration was the passage of the 1991 Local Government Code which enabled fiscal decentralization. This increased the taxing and spending powers to local governments in effect increasing local government resources. Ramos Administration (1993-1998) The Ramos administration had budget surpluses for four of its six years in power. The government benefited from the massive sale of government assets (totalling to about â‚ ±70 billion, the biggest among the administrations) and continued to benefit from the 1986 TRP. The administration invested heavily on the power sector as the country was beset by power outages. The government utilized its emergency powers to fast-track the construction of power projects and established contracts with independent power plants. This period also experienced a real estate boom and strong foreign direct investment to the country during the early years of the administration, in effect overvaluing the peso. However, with the onset of the Asian financial crisis, the peso depreciated by almost 40%. The Ramos administration relied heavily on external borrowing to finance its fiscal deficit but quickly switched to domestic dependence on the onset of the Asian financial crisis. The administration has been accused of resorting to â€Å"budget trickery† during the crisis: balancing assets through the sales of assets, building up accounts payable and delaying payment of government premium to social security holders. In 1997, the Comprehensive Tax Reform Program (CTRP) was enacted. Republic Act (RA) 8184 and RA 8240, which were implemented under the program, were estimated to yield additional taxes of around â‚ ±7.4 billion; however, a decline in tax effort during the succeeding periods was observed after the CTRP was implemented. This was attributed to the unfavorable economic climate created by the Asian fiscal crisis and the poor implementation of the provisions of the reform. A sharp decrease in international trade tax contribution to GDP was also observed as a consequence of the trade liberalization and globalization efforts in the 1990s, more prominently, the establishment of the ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (AFTA) and membership to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and t he Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). The Ramos administration also provided additional incentives to export-oriented firms, the most prominent among these being RA 7227 which was instrumental to the success of the Subic Bay Freeport Zone. Estrada Administration (1999-2000) President Estrada, who assumed office at the height of the Asian financial crisis, faced a large fiscal deficit, which was mainly attributed to the sharp deterioration in the tax effort (as a result of the 1997 CTRP: increased tax incentives, narrowing of VAT base and lowering of tariff walls) and higher interest payments given the sharp depreciation of the peso during the crisis. The administration also had to pay P60 billion worth of accounts payables left unpaid by the Ramos administration to contractors and suppliers. Public spending focused on social services, with spending on basic education reaching its peak. To finance the fiscal deficit, Estrada created a balance between domestic and foreign borrowing. Arroyo Administration (2002-2009) The Arroyo administration’s poor fiscal position was attributed to weakening tax effort (still resulting from the 1997 CTRP) and rising debt servicing costs (due to peso depreciation). Large fiscal deficits and heavy losses for monitored government corporations were observed during this period. National debt-to-GDP ratio reached an all-time high during the Arroyo administration, averaging at 69.2%. Investment in public infrastructure (at only 1.9% of GDP), expenditure for economic services, health spending and education spending all hit an historic-low during the Arroyo administration. The government responded to its poor fiscal position by under-spending in public infrastructure and social overhead capital (education and health care), thus sacrificing the economy’s long-term growth. In 2005, RA 9337 was enacted, the most significant amendments of which were the removal of electricity and petroleum VAT exemptions and the increase in the VAT rate from 10% to 12%.

Virtual Reality in Todays Society

Virtual Reality in Todays Society Virtual reality is a computer-generated simulation of the real world. This simulation is not static, instead it responds to the user’s input, whether vocal or tactile, in real time. In order to achieve this interactivity, the computer must constantly monitor the user’s movements or verbal commands and react instantaneously in order to change the synthetic world experienced by the user and in response to him or her. [1] By making use of all of a human’s sensory experience in this way, virtual reality takes the quality of interactivity achieved, say in a computer game, one stage further. Users of virtual reality can see and move objects, they can also touch and feel them. [2] This essay explores the evolution of virtual realities and the many uses of virtual reality in society today, as well as considering its ethical implications. Burdea, and Coiffet comment that the history of virtual reality dates back more than forty years. The Sensorama Simulator virtual reality video arcade game was invented by Martin Heilig in 1962. This game had the capability to simulate a motorcycle ride through a city, using 3-D effects, seat vibrations, appropriate smells, sounds and wind effects using fans. [3] Head-mounted displays were introduced in 1966 by Ivan Sutherland, but were heavy and uncomfortable. In 1985, Michael McGreevey of NASA developed a cheaper and lighter version of the helmet, fitted with mini display screens and sensors to track movement. The sensory glove had been designed in the early 1980s, but it was in 1986 that Jaron Lanier designed a new glove to fit in with the helmet to create a full virtual reality. [4] Advancements continued to be made in graphics and then in 1993 virtual reality became the theme for a major conference of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in Seattle, makin g it clear that virtual reality had entered the main stream scientific community. [5] Since the end of the 1980s, new interfaces communicate three-dimensional images using the head-mounted display (HMD), using video cameras to track the image of the user in a virtual world where he can manipulate objects. More recently there has been a development called CAVE (Cave Automatic Virtual Environment), where the user is enclosed in a six sided environment surrounded by projection screens which they view wearing light stereoglasses, giving the impression of 3-D. [6] The suggestive impression is one of one of immersing oneself in the image space, moving and interacting there in â€Å"real time†, and intervening creatively’. [7] However, Burdea and Coiffet point out that with the swift advancements in technology, ‘virtual reality today is done mostly without head-mounted displays, by using large projection screens or desk top PCs’, and sensing gloves are now regularly replaced with joysticks. [8] The world of computer games has become a major area of importance for virtual reality, where the sense of immersion is important for gaming excitement. This creation of interactive virtual worlds has used grand, sweeping cinematic sequences and other techniques used in traditional cinema, such as ‘the expressive use of camera angles and depth of field, and dramatic lighting of 3-D computer generated sets to create mood and atmosphere’. [9] Actors could be used, superimposed over 3-D backgrounds, or as the games became more advanced, synthetic characters were created moving in real time. [10] This means that the space in which the characters move can now change over time, rendering the same space different when visited at a later time during the game. These changes enabled computer designers to integrate the player more deeply into the gaming world cinematically and to create a sense of visual reality. The immersion experienced when playing a computer game is made a much more total and intense experience when the player becomes a part of the game, that is, physically enters a virtual world. Virtual reality ‘provides the subject with the illusion of being present in a simulated world.’ [11] This virtual world, unlike the purely visual engagement of a computer game, allows for bodily engagement with the synthetic world. Virtual reality also allows the user to change elements of this simulated world: it gives an added feeling of control. Virtual reality allows people to experience elements of life without any physical commitments, possible dangers or general inconveniences of a real experience. Lev Manovich comments that virtual worlds are sometimes put forward as the logical successors of cinema, that they are ‘the key cultural form of the twenty-first century just as cinema was the key cultural form of the twentieth century’. [12] Indeed, Grau and Custance compare virtual reality with film, saying: ‘virtual reality now makes it possible to represent space as dependent on the direction of the observer’s gaze: the viewpoint is no longer static or dynamically linear, as in the film, but theoretically includes an infinite number of possible perspectives.’ [13] Technically, virtual reality ‘utilises the same framing’ as a cinema rectangular frame. This kind of frame only allows a partial view of a wider space. The virtual camera, as with a cinema screen, moves around in relation to the viewer in order to reveal different parts of the shot. [14] This framing device is vital to the virtual reality world in that it gives a small shot of a larger world, thereby providing a wholly subjective and totally personal viewing experience. While Manovich looks to cinema as a basis for virtual technology, Grau and Custance look to art. They argue that the idea of virtual reality ‘rests firmly on historical art traditions, which belong to a discontinuous movement of seeking illusionary image spaces’. [15] Taking into account the lack of technology further back in history, Grau and Custance believe that ‘the idea stretches back at least as far as classical antiquity and is alive again today in the immersive visualization strategies of virtual reality art.’ [16] Indeed, for Grau and Custance, this basic idea of finding these ‘immersive spaces of illusion’ is threaded through the history of art. Grau and Custance also point out the lack of natural involvement with the world through the technological illusion of power and control. They say, ironically that ‘the adherents of virtual reality †¦ have often reiterated their claim that immersion in virtual reality intensifies their relationship with nature’. [17] Indeed, an experience so totally reliant on technology and devoid of anything natural can bring about this feeling of connection to nature due to its resemblance of the real world. Manovich too comments on the illusive quality of any ‘natural’ involvement or control. He says that the user is only altering things that are already inside the computer, the data and memory of the virtual world. [18] The realm of virtual reality is driven by the desire to find a perfect recreation of the real world, a perfect illusion. The ideal interface seems to be one in which the interface or computer itself is entirely invisible, it seeks to block out the very means of creation of the virtual world, making the existence of the user in the virtual world seem totally ‘natural’. [19] The experience means that the user is totally isolated from the actual world whilst at the same time given this feeling of total ‘natural’ immersion in a new world as well as a sense of omnipotence. The user in effect becomes a kind of fictional character that they have themselves created, doing whatever they like, whenever they like, always with a sense of immortality. There are ethical problems relating to the potential decrease in real physical interaction and normal human relationships as people may potentially come to prefer their virtual world to their real life. Indeed, in virtual reality, the physical world no longer exists at all, as all ‘real’ action takes place in virtual space. [20] There is another ethical concern, that of the possibility of children accessing unsuitable experiences in a virtual world, as censorship would be difficult. This is similar to the problem of violence and adult themes in films and on the internet being available to chi ldren today. Virtual reality is an area of even greater concern, however, as children will have the opportunity to take part in the action themselves. Another concern is that criminals could practice their crimes in a virtual world before acting in reality. There are many positive uses for virtual reality today in areas such as: medicine, education, entertainment and psychology. For example, virtual reality can provide flight and driving simulation, operation simulation, it can help with architectural design or treatment of phobias. These things can be practised realistically without the fear of anything going wrong with flying training, driving experience or surgery. Virtual reality can also potentially be used in medicine to evaluate a patient and diagnose problems as well as possibly aid in operations. Disabled people have the opportunity to join in activities not usually available to them. An architect can use the method to plan out a building before starting work constructing it: using virtual reality avoids the need to build several different prototypes. Someone afraid of spiders can meet one in a virtual world under careful programming to reduce sensitivity over a period of time, indeed, any phobia could be treated using this kin d of virtual reality exposure therapy. The field of education is a huge potential area of use for virtual reality; it can even be used to practice sport. There is another important use for virtual reality that is not related to entertainment or education. Telepresence is an ever-increasing part of the digital and virtual world. Telepresence combines three kinds of technology: robotics, telecommunications and virtual reality. With telepresence, ‘the user of a virtual environment, for example, can intervene in the environment via telecommunication and a remote robot and, in the opposite direction, to receive sensory feedback, a sensory experience of a remote event .’ [21] Manovich calls telepresence a ‘much more radical technology than virtual reality, or computer simulations in general’. [22] Indeed, Manovich explains that with virtual reality, the user controls a simulated world, that is, the computer data. In contrast, ‘telepresence allows the subject to control not just the simulation but reality itself’ because it allows the user to ‘manipulate remotely physical reality in real time through its image’, [23] that is, the user’s action affect what happens right then in separate place, useful for tasks such as, Manovich suggests, ‘repairing a space station’; [24] the technique can also be used successfully in battle to direct missiles. [25] So, virtual reality operates on two very opposing grounds. On the one hand it allows great freedom for the user, as he feels he can move anywhere through space with the camera, but at the same time, virtual reality totally confines the body in its simulated world. Manovich recognises that the physical world is subordinated in this way as he says virtual reality renders ‘physical space †¦ totally disregarded’, [26] However, with telepresence, the physical world is very much regarded. Indeed, Mark Hansen thinks Manovich’s comment on the lack of physicality overlooks the experience of space in the potential of virtual reality, even if the body is actually confined. [27] Hansen uses the example of telepresence to explain how simulation and space can coincide to be effective. Indeed, with telepresence, the physical actions, although limited in the space where the user resides, do have an effect at another location. In this way space has been found and used, if not in the same location as the user, their movements have still had a physical effect somewhere else. [28] It seems that virtual reality has many uses in society today, from entertainment to medicine; from psychology to architecture. Telepresence is now a powerful and extremely useful part of the virtual and digital world. With the continuing advancement of technology and the many great uses virtual reality can surely have in society, it is important to bear in mind the negative consequences if virtual reality techniques are not closely monitored, especially as they become more widely available. The ethical implications of a society plugged always into their private, virtual worlds would not be a positive development for human relationships; children also need to be protected from an environment where anything and everything can appear real and personal to the user. However, as long as we are aware of the potential negative implications, the development of advanced virtual reality has great potential benefits for society. Sources Used Burdea, G. C. and Coiffet, P. (2003). Virtual Reality Technology. Chichester: Wiley-IEEE Grau, O. and Custance, G. (2004). Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion. Cambridge: MIT Press Hansen, M. B. N. (2004). New Philosophy for New Media: A New Philosophy for a New Media. Cambridge: MIT Press Heim, M. (1994). The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality. Oxford: Oxford University Press Manovich, L. (2002). The Language of New Media. Cambridge: MIT Press Sherman, W. R. and Craig, A. B. (2003). Understanding Virtual Reality: Interface, Application, and Design. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann http://library.thinkquest.org/26890/virtualrealityt.htm Footnotes [1] Burdea, G. C. and Coiffet, P. (2003). Virtual Reality Technology. Chichester: Wiley-IEEE, p. 2 [2] ibid. p. 3 [3] ibid. [4] http://library.thinkquest.org/26890/virtualrealityt.htm [5] Burdea and Coiffet, op. cit. p. 8 [6] Grau, O. and Custance, G. (2004). Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion. Cambridge: MIT Press, p. 18 [7] ibid. p. 3 [8] Burdea and Coiffet, op. cit. p. 1 [9] Manovich, L. (2002). The Language of New Media. Cambridge: MIT Press, p. 83 [10] ibid. [11] ibid. p. 166 [12] Manovich, op. cit. p. 82 [13] Grau and Custance, op. cit. p. 16 [14] Manovich, op. cit. p. 81 [15] Grau and Custance, op. cit. p. 339 [16] ibid. [17] ibid. p. 201 [18] Manovich op. cit. p. 166 [19] ibid. p. 178 [20] ibid. p. 114 [21] Grau and Custance, op. cit. p. 278-279 [22] Manovich, op. cit. p. 166 [23] ibid. [24] ibid. p. 167 [25] ibid. [26] Manovich, op. cit. p. 114 [27] Hansen, M. B. N. (2004). New Philosophy for New Media: A New Philosophy for a New Media. Cambridge: MIT Press, p. 40 [28] ibid.

A Study On Digital Technologies

A Study On Digital Technologies The advent of technology has transformed and changed the mode of our lives in all its aspects. People can learn in distant universities without having to travel there. They can access to various sources of information through the World Wide Web. Unlike the traditional schools where students learning was only restricted to the school context, most schools today provide students with various contexts of learning through the use of digital technologies that facilitate their communication with their friends, teachers and people from other countries. Digital technologies are increasingly used by schools to support learning and enable students to communicate with parents and provide access to school resources from home. Therefore, I believe that digital technologies consolidated the communication channels between the home and the school. This matter is of paramount importance as it increases parental engagement in childrens learning. Consequently, parents can take informed decision regarding the future of their children and can participate with teachers in developing the level lf their children. Parental engagement in the learning process enhances children achievement at school. The ever-increasing needs of individuals and society in the 21st century are constantly placing much pressure on the educational institutions. The traditional teaching methods are no longer capable of satisfying the requirements of our modern era. Therefore, we find that most schools in many nations around the world focus on the digital participations of students as an entitlement for them in the emerging digital media era. This entitlement includes knowledge, skills and understanding that are required to be involved socially, culturally, politically, and economically in everyday life. This paper is meant to elaborate and identify what has been said about the use of the internet or other forms of webs-based learning in schools and indicate how these approaches would be applied in the context in which Im teaching. Participation in Digital Technology:- The terms digital technology and new media are used to refer to a wide range of technologies which store and transmit information in digital form. This includes computers, the internet and e-mail, mobile phones and other mobile devices and cameras, video games and web 2.0 technologies the label commonly applied participatory and interactive media (Hague, Cassie Williamson, Ben, 2009. P.3) . The digitization and computerization of many aspects of our lives places a heavy burden on established educational institutions. Alexey Semenov (2005) believes that life in the new knowledge society demands more independent and responsible behavior and much less routine execution of orders. In order to make responsible decisions in new and unexpected situations, people need to continue to learn throughout life. Therefore, information and communication technology are the most efficient tools for personal growth, creativity and joy, consumption and wealth. Students can learn the use of the internet in finding papers that are relevant to their curriculum. Through summarizing papers on the net and discussing their findings with their peers and teachers, students can feel that they are creative. Moreover, Their communication channels with their teachers, peers and other people are consolidated through the net. ICT prepares students to actively participate in a rapid changing world in whic h business nature and other activities are increasingly transformed due to the employment of the advanced and multiple technologies by using ICT tools to find, explore, analyze and present information in a responsible, creative and distinguished way. Thus, they learn how to employ information and communication technology ICT to get much literature and experiences from myriad individuals, communities and cultures. When their capabilities in using information and communication technologies are increased, initiative and independent learning are consolidated as students become more capable of taking responsible and informed decisions on when and where to use information technology to have the best result and to study the uses of ICT at home and work now and in the future. According to Semenov Alexey, 2005 believes that Adams Douglas 1999 believes that using the computer enables us to combine things together to see how they work by emulating and imitating complex and interrelated processes, even life can be imitated. This is a modern era for discoveries and ICT is its gate . Among the main objectives of the national curriculum of ICT in England for the key stages 1-4 are the following: Information Communication Technology (ICT) provides opportunities to consolidate: Thinking skills through helping pupils to determine relevant information sources, develop ideas and work collaboratively to solve problems. Project and initiative skills through encouraging students to design and implement solutions for real problems. Business related learning through providing students with opportunities to have a wide range of ICT applications. Learning for sustainable development through developing pupils understanding of Information and Communication Technology in practical life, community and environment. Digital Literacy and Schools School Subjects:- Currently schools are striving hard to integrate the development of students subject knowledge with the ability to use technology safely and effectively ((Hague, Cassie Williamson, Ben, 2009. P. 7). Therefore, they focus on digital literacy and digital participation as a key to achieve this integration. Hague, Cassie and Williamson, Ben reported that there is a model which offers a conceptual framework for embedding digital literacy as an aim in the curriculum and for developing strategies to develop it through classroom activities. This model delineates types of processes students need to go through in order to demonstrate digital literacy. Moreover, it is based on the notion that learners investigate questions and problems set by teachers, and that over time they should develop sufficient confidence and competence in the skills, knowledge and understanding of digital literacy to be able to define their own questions for enquiry. The author suggests that digital literacy is an amalgamation of: Knowledge of digital tools: hardware/ software awareness and competence. Critical Skills: evaluation and contextualization. Social awareness: Understanding your identity, collaborating, and communicating to audiences in context. Guidelines for successful implementation:- The internet is not intended as a technology that should be imposed on the educational system. Educators should have at least a fair knowledge of the use and benefits of technology in delivering their message. Internet technology for schools is intended to provide a source of comprehensible, accessible information for educators about using the power of the internet within the K-12 academic environment (Mambretti, Catherine, 1999) . In order to create web-based learning at schools and achieve the maximum benefit of the internet as a promising medium for learning, schools should conduct long-range planning not only of their technology infrastructure but of their curricula and educational technologies and strategies (ibid). Since most communities and organizations believe the importance of technology for education, several corporations have established non-profit organizations to assist schools in their technology projects or have announced plans to make major donations to school technology projects. The ICT shouldnt be a closed or self -contained subject to be taught and learned independently from other subjects. However, according to Semenov Alexey (2005) it should be treated as interdisciplinary, integrative, and cross curricular. Using ICT in teaching and learning will help both teachers and students become more conscious of their capabilities and responsibilities. However, it is of paramount importance to support learning by an immediate application of technology that is meaningful and relevant to students. Children should be taught at an early age the skill touch typing which is basically for communicating between human beings and computers. Microworld-like environments allow children from the age of 3 upwards to learn and use ICT for usual applications (graphics and text-editing) and for modeling the real world and multimedia implementation of virtual realities. Semenov Alexey ( 2005) believes that number of students per computer is a common indicator of ICT development at schools. There is also another quantitative factor which is more relevant: the number of hours a week that computers are available for use. Advantages and disadvantages of using the web for learning:- Web-based learning has many benefits for students. Students can have an easy access to a huge library of training and information whether they are working from home or any other place. It is also easy to track students. As students can complete their training while they are connected to the network, it is easy to track them. Unlike with CD-ROMs that require students to print reports or save scores to disk, WBT enables the data to be automatically tracked on the server-computer . Additionally, in web-based learning, the content can be easily updated. However, there are also some disadvantages and barriers that make it difficult to implement ICT at some schools. The most significant disadvantage is that the content of the internet which includes both safe and unsafe materials. Thus, unsafe materials such as porno movies may represent a threat to the students. There are also some barriers to the implementation of ICT at some schools such as : The cost of ICT hardware, software and maintenance. The often unconscious resistance of many educators to the intrusion of still obscure technological newcomers that threaten to alter drastically long-established and time-honored practices and customs; and The lack of teachers who are trained to exploit ICT proficiently . How ICT could be applied to the context in which Im teaching:- ICT could be applied in my context of teaching through establishing a network for the school and creating a computer lab. Each student shall be assigned a computer. Teachers shall be trained adequately on the use of ICT tools to deliver their message efficiently. Students also shall be trained on the use of the web resources through the guidance of their teachers. They will be encourage to be creative and critical in their thinking by processing all kinds of information and creating a new version of their own. Through answering assignments and receiving feedback on their e-mail, students can feel a sense of independent learning. Thus, they can take a responsible decision and depend upon themselves in searching for information and generating relevant theories. Conclusion:- To conclude, I believe that the advent of technology make it inevitable to apply ICT at all schools to create universal students who care for sustainable learning and global development. In other words, ICT should be properly implemented as it qualifies students for the increasing and fast changing requirements of the outside world. Schools shouldnt be isolated from the outside world. However, it should be a mirror for the outside world. All the conflicts and changes in the outside world should be analyzed at the school to connect students with their home and community. ICT represent an excellent communication channel between the school, home and the community as a whole. Moreover, it encourages students to be creative and independent learners. The use of ICT limits the role of the teacher to an outside observer and a guide for students. They will learn what they want to learn by themselves. Although ICT is still facing some obstacles represented by the expensive tools and equipments, its a necessity for all schools to adapt with the changing requirements and changes of our age. References:- Hague, Cassie Williamson, Ben, Digital Participation, Digital Literacy, and School Subjects ( A review of the Policies, literature and evidence, August 2009 www.futurelab.org.uk/projects/digital-participation. Semenov Alexey, Information and Communication Technologies in Schools, a hand book for teachers, Unisco 2005. ICT, National Curriculum For England, Key Stages 1-4, Crown House Publishing 1999. www.qca.org.uk/nc/ http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art1_9.htm Mambretti, Catherine, Internet Technology for Schools, McFarland Company, North Carolina, 1999.

The Life of a Star Essay -- essays research papers

The Life of a Star One night while little Jimmy was out camping with his father, he asked his father how a star is made? And his father said there are high-mass stars, intermediate-mass stars, and low-mass stars. The life cycles of stars follow three general patterns each associated with a range of initial mass. Much like human beings stars have a life cycle, they go threw birth, evolution, and death. And little Jimmy said how is that possible? First the star must be born. Many astronomers believe that a star is formed when large compression waves traveling through gas clouds create dense knots of gas is the cloud. The gravity of these knots then pules the other gas molecules. As the knot grows larger and larger the gravity starts attracting more and more gas molecules. Eventually, the knot coalesces into a growing sphere of compressed gas that reaches internal temperatures of a few million degrees Celsius. At this point the gases in the knot’s interior become so hot that their atomic nuclei begin fusing, creating large amounts of nuclear energy and forming a new star. Pressure from the radiation of new stars in turn causes more, higher-density zones to form in the gas cloud, which initiates the birth of more stars. Next the evolution and main sequence of a star, as it’s going through puberty. In its earliest stage, a typical star is large and emits infrared light. Within a million years, the gravitational attraction of the star’s material for itself causes the star to ...